Preservation of corneous β-proteins in Mesozoic feathers Photographs of fossil specimens used in this study.
Palaeontologists at University College Cork (UCC) in Ireland have discovered X-ray evidence of proteins in fossil feathers that sheds new light on feather evolution.
Previous studies suggested that ancient feathers had a different composition to the feathers of birds today. The new research, however, reveals that the protein composition of modern-day feathers was also present in the feathers of dinosaurs and early birds, confirming that the chemistry of feathers originated much earlier than previously thought.
The research, published today in Nature Ecology and Evolution, was led by palaeontologists Dr Tiffany Slater and Prof. Maria McNamara of UCC’s School of Biological, Earth, and Environmental Science, who teamed with scientists based at Linyi University (China) and the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (USA).
The team analysed 125-million-year-old feathers from the dinosaur Sinornithosaurus and the early bird Confuciusornis from China, plus a 50-million-year-old feather from the USA.
“It’s really exciting to discover new similarities between dinosaurs and birds,” Dr Slater says. “To do this, we developed a new method to detect traces of ancient feather proteins. Using X-rays and infrared light we found that feathers from the dinosaur Sinornithosaurus contained lots of beta-proteins, just like feathers of birds today.”
To help interpret the chemical signals preserved in the fossil feathers, the team also ran experiments to help understand how feather proteins break down during the fossilization process.
“Modern bird feathers are rich in beta-proteins that help strengthen feathers for flight,” Dr Slater says.
“Previous tests on dinosaur feathers, though, found mostly alpha-proteins. Our experiments can now explain this weird chemistry as the result of protein degradation during the fossilization process. So although some fossil feathers do preserve traces of the original beta-proteins, other fossil feathers are damaged and tell us a false narrative about feather evolution.”
This research helps answer a long-standing debate about whether feather proteins, and proteins in general, can preserve in deep time.
Prof. Maria McNamara, senior author on the study, said
“Traces of ancient biomolecules can clearly survive for millions of years, but you can’t read the fossil record literally because even seemingly well-preserved fossil tissues have been cooked and squashed during fossilization. We’re developing new tools to understand what happens during fossilization and unlock the chemical secrets of fossils. This will give us exciting new insights into the evolution of important tissues and their biomolecules. ”
Reference:
Tiffany S. Slater, Nicholas P. Edwards, Samuel M. Webb, Fucheng Zhang, Maria E. McNamara. Preservation of corneous β-proteins in Mesozoic feathers. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2023; DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-02177-8
Anelasticity spectra with respect to water content.
The oceanic lithosphere, which constitutes the top layer including Earth’s crust and mantle below the oceans, has long intrigued scientists due to its peculiar behavior. This layer appears to glide over a weaker region below called the asthenosphere, characterized by high seismic attenuation and low shear wave velocity. The asthenosphere has different physical properties such as lower viscosity than the lithosphere, resulting in a sharp boundary called the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB). The exact reasons behind these distinct properties and how they enable the lithosphere to move over the asthenosphere are not clearly understood.
While partial melting occurring near mid-ocean ridges due to high temperatures can produce such anomalous conditions, it fails to account for the sharp and large drops in the velocity of seismic waves observed at the LAB far from mid-ocean ridges. Understanding the origin of this seismic wave velocity drop and attenuation at the oceanic LAB is crucial for deciphering the asthenosphere’s low viscosity and how it facilitates the movement of tectonic plates over the Earth’s surface, giving rise to mountain-building processes, earthquakes, and volcanism.
In this regard, a team of researchers from Japan, led by Professor Takashi Yoshino from the Institute for Planetary Materials at Okayama University, has recently investigated the effect of water on the seismic properties of titanium-free olivine rocks, similar to those found in the asthenosphere. Their study was published in Volume 120, Issue 32 of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on 31 July 2023.
“We experimentally determined the seismic wave attenuation characteristics, parameters for ascertaining the softness of the lithosphere and asthenosphere, under high temperature and pressure using our short-period oscillation generation technology,” explains Prof. Yoshino.
The team studied the anelastic properties of the olivine rocks under conditions which resemble the LAB beneath the old oceanic floor — 3 GPa pressure and temperatures ranging from 1,223 to 1,373 K. They employed in situ X-ray monitoring and subjected the olivine rocks to mechanical testing by generating forced vibrations over a wide range of seismic frequencies — 0.5 to 1,000 seconds — through their unique short-period oscillation technology.
The experiments revealed that water had a significant effect, enhancing the energy dispersion and reducing the elastic moduli of the rocks across a wide range of frequencies. Additionally, the researchers observed a seismic attenuation peak at higher frequencies of 1 to 5 seconds, which became more pronounced with increasing water content. “The presence of water induces attenuation at higher frequencies, leading to a decrease in the velocity of seismic waves. The presence of water also weakens the asthenosphere, which allows the lithosphere to move smoothly over it,” says Prof. Yoshino.
These observations suggest that the oceanic asthenosphere must contain water. This difference in water content between the two layers constituting the LAB can explain the sharp velocity drops as well as the near constant attenuation observed over a wide frequency range in the asthenosphere.
Notably, the researchers acknowledge that their conclusion assumes a negligible effect of iron on hydrogen-related defects in the rocks, indicating the need for further research to explore the anelastic properties of iron-bearing olivine rocks.
Prof. Yoshino highlights the long-term implications of their findings. “The presence of water in the asthenosphere can provide important insights into volcanic and seismic activities, thus facilitating their prediction and detection,” he speculates.
Overall, this study contributes to our understanding of tectonic plate movement, paving the way for better comprehension of various tectonic activities.
Reference:
Chao Liu, Takashi Yoshino, Daisuke Yamazaki, Noriyoshi Tsujino, Hitoshi Gomi, Moe Sakurai, Youyue Zhang, Ran Wang, Longli Guan, Kayan Lau, Yoshinori Tange, Yuji Higo. Effect of water on seismic attenuation of the upper mantle: The origin of the sharp lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2023; 120 (32) DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2221770120
A new New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics paper out today describes the 266 fossil species as one of the richest and most diverse groups of three-million-year-old fauna ever found in New Zealand. At least ten previously unknown species will be described and named in future research.
Fossil treasure trove from Auckland’s Mangere Wastewater Treatment Plant
In 2020, when Auckland’s Watercare were excavating two huge vertical shafts for a major upgrade of the major pipeline that brings raw sewage for treatment from the central city they dug through an ancient shell bed. Auckland paleontologist Bruce Hayward likened it to “finding gold right on your door step.” Once they were informed of the fossil deposit’s significance, Watercare and their contractors were eager to help and a huge heap of shelly sand was dumped in a nearby paddock so that paleontologists could search through it over many months. Watercare also funded two paleontology graduate students, working under the supervision of Auckland Museum curator Dr Wilma Blom, to painstakingly sift through the heap for many weeks. As a result, it is estimated that over 300,000 fossils were examined and several thousand have been returned in the museum as a record of this “once-in-a-lifetime find.”
“Detailed identification of the fossils shows that they were deposited between 3 and 3.7 million years ago in a subtidal channel in an early version of the modern Manukau Harbour,” said Dr Hayward. “At that time, sea level was slightly higher than it is today as the world was also several degrees warmer than now. As a result, the fossils include a number of subtropical species, whose relatives today live in the warmer waters around the Kermadec and Norfolk islands. At least ten previously unknown species are present and will be described and named in future work.”
In their scientific paper that appeared this week in the New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, the five authors record 266 different fossil species, making it the richest and most diverse fauna of its age ever found in New Zealand. “What is surprising,” says lead author Dr Hayward “is that the fauna contains fossils that lived in many different environments that have been brought together in the ancient marine channel by wave action and strong tidal currents. It includes ten specimens of the iconic NZ flax snail that must have lived on the adjacent land and been washed down into the sea by storm runoff. These are by far the oldest known flax snails in the world. Most of the fossils lived on the sea floor, some in brackish estuaries, others attached to hard rocky shorelines and still more have been carried in from offshore of the exposed west coast at the time.”
“Rare finds have included isolated baleen whale vertebrae, a broken sperm whale tooth, the spine of an extinct sawshark, dental plates of eagle rays and a number of great white shark teeth.” The work has been dedicated to Dr Alan Beu, New Zealand’s leading molluscan fossil expert, who was working on the fossils when he passed away earlier this year.
Reference:
Bruce W. Hayward, Thomas F. Stolberger, Nathan Collins, Alan G. Beu, Wilma Blom. A diverse Late Pliocene fossil fauna and its paleoenvironment at Māngere, Auckland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2023; 1 DOI: 10.1080/00288306.2023.2243234
Three-eyed distant relative of insects. Courtesy of Professor Yu Liu, Yunnan University
A team from the University of Leicester, Yunnan Key Laboratory for Palaeobiology and the Institute of Palaeontology at Yunnan University, Chengjiang Fossil Museum, and the Natural History Museum in London, have redescribed a unique fossil animal from rocks nearly 520 million years old that fills in a gap in our understanding of the evolution of animals known as arthropods.
The animal, which has the scientific name Kylinxia, was imaged using a CT scanner which revealed its soft anatomy buried in the rock. The size of a large shrimp, its surprising features include three eyes on the head and a pair of fearsome limbs presumably used to catch prey.
The study is published this week in the high impact journal Current Biology.
Fossils of many kinds of marine animals first appear in rocks from about half a billion years ago and signal a time when complex ecosystems were developing in the world’s oceans. One of the key localities for such fossils is the area around the town of Chengjiang in southern China, where the fossils in this study were collected by the Chinese team. The fossils were recovered from the Cambrian Chengjiang biota of China’s Yunnan Province, from which over 250 species of exceptionally preserved fossil organisms have been described.
The new find is important for deciphering the history of arthropods. These are animals whose bodies are divided into segments, most of which bear a paired of jointed limbs, like crabs, lobsters, insects, and spiders.
Although there are plenty of arthropods in the fossil record — most famously the trilobites — the vast majority only preserve their hard skeletons. Because the new Chinese material is preserved nearly complete, the team were able to image the head of Kylinxia, identifying six segments: the front one bearing eyes, the second with a pair of large grasping limbs, and the other four each bearing a pair of jointed limbs.
Lead author of the study Robert O’Flynn, a PhD student at the University of Leicester School of Geography, Geology and the Environment, said: “The preservation of the fossil animal is amazing. After CT-scanning we can digitally turn it around and literally stare into the face of something that was alive over 500 million years ago. As we spun the animal around, we could see that its head possesses six segments, just as in many living arthropods.”
Professor Mark Williams, Robert’s primary supervisor at the University of Leicester, said: “Kylinxia, and the Chengjiang biota whence it came, are instrumental to building our understanding of early euarthropod evolution. I like to think that similar discoveries will continue to be made by Robert.”
Professor Yu Liu from the Yunnan Key Laboratory for Palaeobiology said: “Robert and I were examining the micro-CT data as part of his doctoral thesis in the hope of refining and correcting previous interpretation of head structures in this genus, Kylinxia. Amazingly, we found that its head is composed of six segments, as in, e.g., insects.”
Dr Greg Edgecombe from the Natural History Museum added: “Most of our theories on how the head of arthropods evolved were based on these early-branching species having fewer segments than living species. Discovering two previously undetected pairs of legs in Kylinxia suggests that living arthropods inherited a six-segmented head from an ancestor at least 518 million years ago.”
This study is supported by the Science Foundation of Yunnan Province (grant numbers: 202301AS070049; 2015HA021).
Reference:
Robert J. O’Flynn, Yu Liu, Xianguang Hou, Huijuan Mai, Mengxiao Yu, Songling Zhuang, Mark Williams, Jin Guo, Gregory D. Edgecombe. The early Cambrian Kylinxia zhangi and evolution of the arthropod head. Current Biology, 2023; DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.022
Life reconstructions and size comparison of three rhabdodontids. From left to right: Mochlodon suessi from eastern Austria (the smallest member of the group), Rhabdodon priscus from southern France (the largest member of the group), and Transylvanosaurus platycephalus from western Romania (the most recently named member of the group). Also shown is the silhoutte of a human (1.8 m tall) for scale. Reconstruction by Peter Nickolaus
A new study published in Fossil Record brings together intriguing details about the little-known Rhabdodontidae dinosaurs of Late Cretaceous Europe. These gregarious herbivores, characterized by robust builds and beaks specialized for tough vegetation, inhabited the European archipelago. Despite being widespread and abundant, they vanished in Western Europe due to environmental changes around 69 million years ago, while surviving longer in Eastern Europe. Their fossil record offers valuable insights into their evolution and lifestyle, although its limited nature still challenges comprehensive understanding.
When you think of dinosaurs, you might automatically imagine iconic dinosaurs as Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops. But at the same time when these were stomping on the ancient coastal plains of North America, some of their very distant cousins were reigning over Europe’s lands.
During the Late Cretaceous (between 100 and 66 million years ago), Europe was an extensive archipelago with numerous small and large islands situated in a shallow tropical sea, the so-called Late Cretaceous European Archipelago. The dinosaur groups that lived on these islands were very different from those of other continents, often being much smaller than their mainland relatives. These European dinosaurs include small and medium-sized carnivorous theropods, armoured ankylosaurs, long-necked sauropods, duck-billed hadrosaurs, and rhabdodontids.
Arguably one of the most important of these European dinosaur groups is the family Rhabdodontidae, which groups together the most common medium-sized herbivores of the Late Cretaceous European Archipelago. A joint research team from the Universities of Tübingen (Germany), Budapest (Hungary) and Bucharest (Romania) recently reviewed what we know about these peculiar dinosaurs in a new paper published in the journal Fossil Record.
Generally, rhabdodontid dinosaurs were small to medium-sized animals with an overall body length of approximately 2-6 m. “They were probably habitually bipedal herbivores, characterised by a rather stocky build, with strong hind limbs, short forelimbs, a long tail, and a comparatively large, triangular skull that tapers anteriorly and ends in a narrow snout,” explains Felix Augustin, lead author of the study in Fossil Record.
“They had a relatively robust skull with strong jaws, large teeth and a pointy beak that was covered in keratin, demonstrating that these dinosaurs were well-adapted to eating tough plants.”
In some instances, fossil remains of several individuals of different ages have been found together, indicating that they were gregarious.
Although they died out well before the mass extinction in Western Europe (about 69 million years ago), potentially due to environmental changes that affected the plants they fed on, they survived much longer in Eastern Europe and were among the last non-avian dinosaurs still present before the end of the Cretaceous (66 million years ago).
Interestingly, fossils of rhabdodontids have only been found in Europe and only in rocks ranging in age from 86-66 million years ago, so they were endemic to the Late Cretaceous European Archipelago.
The group currently comprises nine different species from five European countries (France, Spain, Austria, Hungary, and Romania).
“The first rhabdodontid species was scientifically named more than 150 years ago and the last one as recently as November 2022, so, although the group looks back to a long research history, we still have much to learn about it,” says Felix Augustin.
“Generally, our portraying of the world of dinosaurs is heavily biased towards the well-known North-American and Asian dinosaur faunas,” he adds.
Dinosaur fossils from the Late Cretaceous are much rarer in Europe than in North America or Asia, and thus far no complete skeleton of a rhabdodontid has been described. Even though they were so abundant and common in the Upper Cretaceous of Europe, several key aspects about them remain poorly known, including their detailed body proportions, their posture and locomotion, as well as their feeding behaviour.
“In the past decades, a wealth of new, and often well-preserved, rhabdodontid fossils has been discovered throughout Europe, the majority of which still remains to be studied,” says Felix Augustin. “A joint research project is currently underway to study the available fossil material in order to gain new insights into the evolution and lifestyle of these fascinating yet still poorly known dinosaurs.”
Reference:
Felix J. Augustin, Attila Ősi, Zoltán Csiki-Sava. The Rhabdodontidae (Dinosauria, Ornithischia), an enigmatic dinosaur group endemic to the Late Cretaceous European Archipelago. Fossil Record, 2023; 26 (2): 171 DOI: 10.3897/fr.26.108967
A range of sea urchin spines from different periods of the Earth’s history illustrating the diversity of shapes. Photo: 2023 Wiese et al.
Right at the bottom of the deep sea, the first very simple forms of life on earth probably emerged a long time ago. Today, the deep sea is known for its bizarre fauna. Intensive research is being conducted into how the number of species living on the sea floor have changed in the meantime. Some theories say that the ecosystems of the deep sea have emerged again and again after multiple mass extinctions and oceanic upheavals. Today’s life in the deep sea would thus be comparatively young in the history of the Earth. But there is increasing evidence that parts of this world are much older than previously thought.
A research team led by the University of Göttingen has now provided the first fossil evidence for a stable colonisation of the deep sea floor by higher invertebrates for at least 104 million years. Fossil spines of irregular echinoids (sea urchins) indicate their long-standing existence since the Cretaceous period, as well as their evolution under the influence of fluctuating environmental conditions. The results have been published in the journal PLOS ONE.
The researchers examined over 1,400 sediment samples from boreholes in the Pacific, Atlantic and Southern Ocean representing former water depths of 200 to 4,700 metres. They found more than 40,000 fragments of spines, which they assigned to a group called irregular echinoids, based on their structure and shape. For comparison, the scientists recorded morphological characteristics of the spines, such as shape and length, and determined the thickness of around 170 spines from each of two time periods. As an indicator of the total mass of the sea urchins in the habitat — their biomass — they determined the amount of spiny material in the sediments.
What these fossil spines document is that the deep sea has been continuously populated by irregular echinoids since at least the early Cretaceous period about 104 million years ago. And they provide further exciting insights into the past: the devastating meteorite impact at the end of the Cretaceous period about 66 million years ago, which resulted in a worldwide mass extinction — with the dinosaurs as the most prominent victims — also caused considerable disturbances in the deep sea. This is shown by the morphological changes in the spines: they were thinner and less diverse in shape after the event than before. The researchers interpret this as the “Lilliput Effect.” This means that smaller species have a survival advantage after a mass extinction, leading to the smaller body size of a species. The cause could have been the lack of food at the bottom of the deep sea.
“We interpret the changes in the spines as an indication of the constant evolution and emergence of new species in the deep sea,” explains Dr Frank Wiese from the Department of Geobiology at the University of Göttingen, the lead author of the study. He emphasises another finding: “About 70 million years ago, the biomass of sea urchins increased. We know that the water cooled down at the same time. This relationship between biomass in the deep sea and water temperature allows us to speculate how the deep sea will change due to human-induced global warming.”
In addition to the University of Göttingen, the Universities of Heidelberg and Frankfurt as well as the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin were involved in the research project.
Reference:
Frank Wiese, Nils Schlüter, Jessica Zirkel, Jens O. Herrle, Oliver Friedrich. A 104-Ma record of deep-sea Atelostomata (Holasterioda, Spatangoida, irregular echinoids) – a story of persistence, food availability and a big bang. PLOS ONE, 2023; 18 (8): e0288046 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288046
Representative image: Two fossilized flowers next to each were discovered in shales of the Salamanca Formation in Chubut Province, Patagonia, Argentina. Credit: Nathan Jud/Provided
A new study by researchers from the University of Bath (UK) and Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Mexico) shows that flowering plants escaped relatively unscathed from the mass extinction that killed the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. Whilst they suffered some species loss, the devastating event helped flowering plants become the dominant type of plant today.
There have been several mass extinctions in the Earth’s history, the most famous caused by an asteroid hit 66 million years ago, which has steered the course of life on Earth profoundly.
The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event eradicated at least 75% of all species on Earth including the dinosaurs, but until now it’s been unclear what impact it had on flowering plants.
Plants do not have skeletons or exoskeletons like most animals, meaning fossils are relatively rare compared to animals, making it very difficult to understand the timeline of evolution from fossil evidence alone.
Dr Jamie Thompson of the Milner Centre for Evolution and Dr Santiago Ramírez-Barahona of Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México analysed evolutionary trees constructed from mutations in the DNA sequences of up to 73,000 living species of flowering plants (angiosperms).
Using complex statistical methods, they fitted “birth-death” models to estimate the rates of extinction throughout geological time.
Whilst the fossil record shows that many species did disappear, the lineages to which they belong, such as families and orders, survived enough to flourish and then dominate — out of around 400,000 plant species living today, approximately 300,000 of these are flowering plants.
Molecular clock evidence suggests that the vast majority of angiosperm families around today existed before the K-Pg event: species including the ancestors of orchids, magnolia and mint all shared Earth with the dinosaurs.
Dr Jamie Thompson said: “After most of Earth’s species became extinct at K-Pg, angiosperms took the advantage, similar to the way in which mammals took over after the dinosaurs, and now pretty much all life on Earth depends on flowering plants ecologically.”
So what made them tough enough to survive despite being immobile and relying on the sun for energy?
Dr Ramírez-Barahona said: “Flowering plants have a remarkable ability to adapt: they use a variety of seed-dispersal and pollination mechanisms, some have duplicated their entire genomes and others have evolved new ways to photosynthesise.
“This ‘flower power’ is what makes them nature’s true survivors.”
Reference:
Jamie B. Thompson, Santiago Ramírez-Barahona. No phylogenetic evidence for angiosperm mass extinction at the Cretaceous–Palaeogene (K-Pg) boundary. Biology Letters, 2023; 19 (9) DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2023.0314
A 455-million-year-old fossil fish provides a new perspective on how vertebrates evolved to protect their brains, a study has found.
In a paper published in Nature today (Wednesday 20th September), researchers from the University of Birmingham, Naturalis Biodiversity Centre in Leiden, Netherlands; and the Natural History Museum have pieced together the skull of Eriptychius americanus.
The research, funded by the Leverhulme Trust, suggests that the ancient jawless fish found in ancient deposits in Colorado, USA has a skull unlike that of any previously seen, and fills a gap currently spanning 100 million years in the evolutionary history of the vertebrate skull.
Using computed tomography, a form of x-ray technique, scientists recreated a detailed 3D representation of the skull of Eriptychius and is the first time that such a comprehensive recreation has been done on the specimen which was collected in the 1940s, originally described in the 1960s and is housed in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
This ancient fish had separated, independent cartilages encasing the brain, rather than the solid bone or cartilage structure of jawless and jawed fish that followed it.
While later specieshave a fully bound cage of cartilage that holds the brain, these results suggest that the early evolution of structures to separate the brain from other parts of the head may have begun with Eriptychius.
Dr Ivan Sansom, Senior Lecturer in Palaeobiology at the University of Birmingham and senior author of the paper said:
“These are tremendously exciting results that may reveal the early evolutionary history of how primitive vertebrates protected their brains. Eriptychius americanus appears to be the first evidence for a series of cartilages separating the brain from the rest of the head. This study emphasises the importance of museum collections and the application of new techniques in studying them.”
Dr Richard Dearden, Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Palaeobiology at Naturalis Biodiversity Center and lead author of the paper said:
“On the face of it Eriptychius is not the most beautiful of fossils. However, by using modern imaging techniques we were able to show that it preserves something unique: the oldest three-dimensionally preserved vertebrate head in the fossil record. This fills a major gap in our understanding of the evolution of the skull of all vertebrates, ultimately including humans.”
Reference:
Dearden, R.P., Lanzetti, A., Giles, S. et al. The oldest three-dimensionally preserved vertebrate neurocranium. Nature, 2023 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06538-y
A gigantic, ancient crocodylomorph species that was recently discovered grew slower than other large reptiles of its day, such as dinosaurs.
Today’s crocodilians (including crocodiles and alligators) all grow slowly, taking years to reach maximum size. In contrast, birds are crocodilian’s closest living relatives, and they can reach adult size in less than a year (~150 days for a chicken!). When, how, and why crocodilians evolved to grow so slowly has eluded researchers for years. A new study titled “Origins of slow growth on the crocodilian stem lineage” in Current Biology, is beginning to shed light on this question.
By investigating the internal structure of fossil bones of 200 million-year-old fossil crocodile ancestors (known as crocodylomorphs) from South Africa, a team of researchers has shown that they grew slowly, similar to their living descendants. “After studying the internal structure of the bones of the animal we were surprised to find that the bone tissues consisted of a type of bone tissue called parallel-fibred bone. This shows that this crocodylomorph grew at a rate between that of its fast-growing ancestors and slower-growing living crocodiles,” says co-author Professor Jennifer Botha, from the University of the Witwatersrand.
Unlike today’s sprawling ambush predators, these early crocodylomorphs were active, fully terrestrial animals with upright limb postures. This research finding casts doubt on prevailing wisdom that slow growth in living crocodiles is linked to the evolution of their sedentary, semiaquatic lifestyles.
The researchers also studied fossils of a gigantic new crocodilian ancestor that lived 210 million years ago, discovered in the village of Qhemegha, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Professor Jonah Choiniere of the University of the Witwatersrand, and co-author of the paper says “This fantastic specimen is one of dozens of new fossils we’ve recovered from our excavations in Late Triassic rocks at Qhemegha Village. The fossil area was initially discovered by local people and has developed into a superb example of integrating local knowledge with scientific enquiry.”
The researchers combined this with data from specimens previously collected and held in South African museums. By cutting the bones and examining their features under a high-powered microscope, they could assess the age at death, the amount of annual growth, and the bone tissue characteristics of these extinct crocodilian forebears. “When comparing this new specimen to other known species we found that it was a very early crocodile ancestor, possibly the earliest of the group that contains modern crocodiles,” says Bailey Weiss, another co-author of the study from the University of the Witwatersrand.
They found that the gigantic new species grew more slowly than other large reptiles of its day (such as dinosaurs) and that other crocodylomorph species that evolved more recently retained this slow growth strategy, decelerating it even further. The strategy of slow growth became a characteristic of all known crocodylomorphs descending from their ancient ancestor. Soon after slow growth first appeared in the crocodilian stem lineage, the world faced a mass extinction event at the end of the Triassic Period, and only the slower-growing members of the group managed to survive through it.
In contrast, dinosaurs are hypothesised to have survived the extinction event by growing fast. After the extinction, the world was left with fast-growing dinosaurs and slow-growing crocodylomorphs, building a foundation for the stark growth differences in their descendants — the birds and crocodilians alive today.
“Our new results show that the major difference we see between living, fast-growing birds and their slow-growing croc relatives was established really early in the evolutionary history of the group, despite the fact that their common ancestor would have been a fast-growing animal,” says Paul Barrett, Merit Professor of Palaeontology at the Natural History Museum, London.
Reference:
Jennifer Botha, Bailey M. Weiss, Kathleen Dollman, Paul M. Barrett, Roger B.J. Benson, Jonah N. Choiniere. Origins of slow growth on the crocodilian stem lineage. Current Biology, 2023; DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.08.057
Gemstones have captivated humanity for centuries with their mesmerizing beauty, vibrant colors, and innate rarity. These precious treasures of the Earth are not only symbols of luxury and wealth but also hold cultural, spiritual, and historical significance. While many gemstones are widely known and cherished, there exists a hidden realm of rare gemstones that are equally, if not more, enchanting. In this exploration, we will unveil 20 of the most stunning rare gemstones, each with its own unique story, characteristics, and allure.
1. Painite: The World’s Rarest Gemstone
Natural 236.40 Ct Huge Red Painite Rough Burmese Facet Raw Loose Gemstone Credit: supremgem/etsy
Discovered in Myanmar during the mid-20th century, Painite has earned its reputation as one of the rarest and most coveted gemstones on Earth. Its captivating reddish-brown hue and extraordinary brilliance have captured the hearts of collectors and gem enthusiasts worldwide.
The story of Painite‘s discovery is one of serendipity and astonishment. In 1951, British mineralogist Arthur C.D. Payne stumbled upon a unique mineral that bore a remarkable resemblance to brownish-red topaz. However, upon closer examination, it was revealed to be an entirely new gemstone with dazzling optical properties. Named after gemologist Richard T. Liddicoat, Painite’s journey from obscurity to fame began.
What sets Painite apart is not only its exceptional beauty but also its extreme rarity. For decades after its initial discovery, only two known Painite specimens existed – one in the British Museum and the other in the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) collection. This scarcity, coupled with the gem’s mesmerizing appearance, sent shockwaves through the world of gemology, leading to Painite’s title as the “world’s rarest gemstone.”
Painite’s visual appeal is a symphony of colors that dance within its reddish-brown depths. Its hexagonal crystal structure and remarkable pleochroism, which causes the gem to display different colors when viewed from different angles, contribute to its enchanting beauty. Under the glow of light, Painite exhibits an exceptional play of color and brilliance that evokes a sense of wonder.
While the gem’s unique allure has propelled it into the spotlight, the challenges associated with its rarity and sourcing have also brought ethical considerations to the forefront. Painite is primarily found in Myanmar, a region known for its complex political landscape and gem trade-related issues. Responsible sourcing and sustainable practices are essential to ensure that the beauty of Painite does not come at the cost of ethical concerns.
In recent years, additional deposits of Painite have been discovered, easing its scarcity to some extent. However, the gem’s aura of exclusivity and its ongoing appeal to collectors and connoisseurs remain steadfast. Painite’s value has escalated in accordance with its rarity, often reaching astronomical figures in the market.
2. Musgravite: Born from Meteorite Impact
This 0.86 ct gray musgravite displays an unusual iridescent phenomenon that is clearly visible in the table facet. Photo by Kevin Schumacher.
In the realm of gemstones, where each treasure holds a story etched in time, Musgravite emerges as a gem of cosmic wonder. Born from the aftermath of a meteorite impact, this remarkable gemstone showcases a vivid bluish-green hue and an otherworldly charm that has captivated gem enthusiasts and collectors alike.
The story of Musgravite begins in the Musgrave Range of South Australia, where a meteorite collision with Earth’s surface created the conditions necessary for its formation. Discovered in 1967, Musgravite quickly earned its place as one of the rarest gemstones on the planet, owing its name to the region of its origin.
What makes Musgravite truly exceptional is its celestial heritage. Created through the intense heat and pressure generated by a meteorite impact, this gem embodies a connection to the cosmos that few other gemstones can claim. Its mesmerizing bluish-green color, reminiscent of the depths of outer space, adds to its allure, making it a prized possession for those who seek gems with a story as captivating as their appearance.
Musgravite’s remarkable hardness further elevates its status as a sought-after gemstone. With a rating of 8.5 on the Mohs scale, it boasts exceptional durability that enables it to withstand the rigors of daily wear. This combination of rarity, color, and durability makes Musgravite a gem of exceptional value for both collectors and jewelry enthusiasts.
However, Musgravite’s scarcity remains one of its defining features. With only a handful of known specimens in existence, its allure is further heightened. Each Musgravite gemstone becomes a piece of Earth’s history, a fragment of the cosmic event that birthed its existence.
For those who seek gems that transcend the ordinary, Musgravite offers a journey into the cosmos itself. Its celestial origins, stunning bluish-green hue, and rarity create a captivating trifecta that sets it apart in the world of gemstones. As we continue to unearth the secrets of our universe, Musgravite stands as a tangible connection to the mysteries of the cosmos, a gem that sparkles with the brilliance of celestial creation.
3. Grandidierite: A Kaleidoscope of Hues
Grandidierite
Grandidierite emerges as a true masterpiece of nature’s artistry. Named after French explorer Alfred Grandidier, this gemstone is renowned for its remarkable trichroism, showcasing an enchanting play of colors that dance within its depths.
Discovered in Madagascar in the early 20th century, Grandidierite’s striking appearance and scarcity have earned it a place among the most coveted gemstones in the world. What sets Grandidierite apart is its unique ability to display three distinct colors when viewed from different angles. The gem transitions from blue-green to bluish-violet and, on occasion, even colorless, creating a visual symphony that captures the imagination.
This captivating trichroism is a result of the gem’s crystal lattice structure, which interacts with light in a way that produces a kaleidoscope of hues. As light enters the gem, it is split into different wavelengths, revealing the spectrum of colors that lie within. The interplay of colors within Grandidierite gives each gemstone an almost magical quality, as if it holds a secret world of colors waiting to be discovered.
Grandidierite’s rarity further enhances its allure. Found in only a handful of locations across the globe, including Madagascar, Sri Lanka, and parts of Africa, the gem’s scarcity has contributed to its status as a collector’s dream. With limited availability, each Grandidierite gem becomes a unique and cherished piece of nature’s artistry.
Beyond its visual appeal, Grandidierite also holds significance as a gem that encourages self-discovery and introspection. Believed by some to promote harmony and inner peace, the gem’s tranquil colors and mesmerizing trichroism add a spiritual dimension to its already enchanting character.
4. Red Beryl: The Scarlet Jewel of Utah
Red Beryl Crystals from Utah. Credit: Treasure Mountain Mining
Red Beryl. Often referred to as “red emerald” due to its stunning color, this gemstone is a true marvel of nature, with a fiery hue that ignites the imagination and a scarcity that has collectors and enthusiasts in pursuit.
The story of Red Beryl begins in the Wah Wah Mountains of Utah, USA, where it was first discovered in 1904. Its vibrant red tones, ranging from rich raspberry to deep scarlet, immediately set it apart from other gemstones. The gem’s vivid coloration is attributed to the presence of manganese, which infuses it with an irresistible intensity.
What makes Red Beryl even more captivating is its rarity. This gemstone is one of the rarest in the world, with only a handful of known deposits scattered across the globe. The Wah Wah Mountains remain its primary source, but even there, finding high-quality Red Beryl is a daunting challenge. As a result, Red Beryl is often considered rarer than diamonds, making it a highly sought-after prize among collectors.
The scarcity of Red Beryl has led to its astronomical value. Its vivid color, combined with its rarity, has catapulted it into the upper echelons of the gem market. The gem’s breathtaking beauty and limited availability have caused its prices to rival those of other renowned gemstones.
In addition to its exquisite appearance, Red Beryl also holds cultural and spiritual significance for some Native American communities in the region. It is believed to carry energy that aligns with the root chakra, enhancing vitality and grounding.
To uncover the world of Red Beryl is to embark on a journey of both beauty and rarity. Its fiery red hues, intertwined with the rich history of the earth, create a gem that is truly a wonder to behold. As collectors and enthusiasts continue to seek the hidden treasures of the natural world, Red Beryl remains a beacon of beauty, rarity, and the untamed forces of nature’s artistry.
5. Jadeite: Imperial Jade of Burma
Jadeite
Known for its rich green hues and unparalleled beauty, Jadeite is not just a gemstone; it is a symbol of prestige, spirituality, and a connection to ancient civilizations.
Jadeite is one of the two recognized types of jade, the other being nephrite. However, it is Jadeite that holds a special place in the hearts of gem enthusiasts and collectors, especially the coveted “imperial jade.” The most exquisite Jadeite hails from Myanmar (formerly Burma), a region where it has been revered for centuries and associated with both cultural and spiritual beliefs.
What distinguishes Jadeite from other gemstones is its remarkable translucence and vivid green colors. Ranging from delicate mint greens to deep emerald tones, the gem’s hues are often likened to the lush foliage of a pristine forest. The intensity and saturation of these greens are influenced by the presence of chromium and iron within the gem.
In Chinese culture, Jadeite is a symbol of virtue, purity, and longevity. It is often carved into intricate shapes and symbols, such as the “pi” disc and the mythical “bi” ring, which carry deep spiritual meanings. Additionally, Jadeite has a special connection to imperial history, with emperors of ancient China considering it the “royal gem.”
The scarcity of high-quality Jadeite has further elevated its value and desirability. While there are several sources of Jadeite worldwide, including Myanmar, Guatemala, and Japan, Myanmar remains the primary supplier of the finest imperial green Jadeite. Due to its limited availability and the demand for this prestigious gemstone, prices can reach astounding levels in the market.
In recent years, Jadeite has gained international recognition and appreciation beyond its cultural origins. As modern designers incorporate Jadeite into contemporary jewelry designs, its allure continues to captivate a global audience. Whether cherished for its historical significance, spiritual connotations, or breathtaking beauty, Jadeite remains an eternal gem that bridges the gap between the past and the present.
6. Benitoite: A Californian Treasure
Benitoite crystals under UV light. Dallas Gem Mine (Benitoite Mine ; Benitoite Gem Mine ; Gem Mine), Dallas Gem Mine area, San Benito River headwaters area, New Idria District, Diablo Range, San Benito Co., California, USA. Photo Credit: Parent Géry
Benitoite emerges as a rare and captivating treasure that is uniquely tied to the state of California. This gem, often referred to as California’s state gemstone, boasts a mesmerizing sapphire-blue hue that has intrigued collectors and enthusiasts for generations.
Benitoite was first discovered in 1907 in the San Benito County of California, USA, from which it derives its name. What sets this gem apart is its remarkable fluorescence under ultraviolet (UV) light, which transforms its appearance from a stunning blue to a dazzling shade of white. This characteristic property has earned it the moniker “blue diamond under UV light.”
The vivid blue color of Benitoite is due to the presence of barium, titanium, and silica in its composition. The combination of these elements produces a hue that is reminiscent of the deep blue skies and oceans. Benitoite’s color is further accentuated by its transparency and brilliance, making it a true gemological wonder.
One of the most intriguing aspects of Benitoite is its limited geographic occurrence. Although other deposits have been found, the gem is most famously associated with the Benitoite Gem Mine in California. Its scarcity and unique fluorescence have fueled its demand among collectors and enthusiasts, making it a sought-after and prized gemstone.
In addition to its rarity and beauty, Benitoite carries a piece of California’s history and geological heritage. In 1985, Benitoite was designated as the official state gemstone of California, highlighting its significance to the region’s natural treasures. The Benitoite Gem Mine, once a source of gem-quality material, is now a protected area, preserving its delicate ecosystem and ensuring the gem’s sustainable future.
Alexandrite stands as a true marvel of nature’s ingenuity. Renowned for its remarkable color-changing properties, this gemstone transforms under different lighting conditions, revealing hues that range from lush green to deep purplish-red. This chameleon-like characteristic has earned Alexandrite the affectionate nickname, “emerald by day, ruby by night.”
Discovered in the Ural Mountains of Russia in the 1830s, Alexandrite’s mesmerizing color shift captured the imagination of gem enthusiasts and collectors around the world. Its unique ability to change color is a result of the interplay between chromium and iron within its crystal structure. In daylight or fluorescent light, Alexandrite appears green or bluish-green, reflecting the gem’s chromium content. However, under incandescent light, which has a higher proportion of red wavelengths, the gem takes on a deep red hue.
This color-changing phenomenon is best appreciated when Alexandrite is viewed in various lighting settings. The gem’s ability to adapt its appearance adds a layer of intrigue and fascination, making it a highly sought-after gemstone for those who appreciate the interplay of light and color.
Beyond its captivating optical properties, Alexandrite carries a legacy of rarity. While deposits of this gemstone have been found in various locations, including Russia, Brazil, Sri Lanka, and East Africa, high-quality specimens are scarce and command significant value in the market. Natural Alexandrite with strong color change and good clarity is particularly prized among collectors and connoisseurs.
Alexandrite’s uniqueness has inspired jewelry designers and enthusiasts alike to create pieces that highlight its exceptional color shift. From solitaire rings to intricate necklaces, Alexandrite’s beauty continues to captivate the hearts of those who seek gemstones that transcend the ordinary.
In essence, Alexandrite is a gem that reveals nature’s artistic brilliance. Its color-changing abilities, combined with its rarity, make it a gemstone that embodies the magic of light and color. As collectors and admirers continue to uncover the hidden gems of the Earth, Alexandrite stands as a testament to the wonders that nature has to offer, inviting us to marvel at its ever-changing beauty.
8. Poudretteite: Delicate and Rare
Poudretteite
Named after the Poudrette family who owned the quarry where it was first discovered, this gemstone captivates with its charming pink hues and limited availability.
Poudretteite’s journey into the gemological spotlight began in 1965 when it was unearthed in Quebec, Canada. Its soft, rosy shades range from delicate pastels to more vibrant pinks, making it a favorite among those who appreciate gems with a touch of femininity and grace.
What sets Poudretteite apart is not only its color but also its scarcity. This gemstone is exceptionally rare, with only a handful of known deposits worldwide. Its limited availability has elevated its desirability among collectors and enthusiasts, who often seek it out for its uniqueness and captivating color.
Poudretteite’s charming appearance has earned it a place in the jewelry world, where it is sometimes featured in elegant pieces that showcase its gentle pink hues. Its relatively recent discovery, combined with its limited mining sources, makes Poudretteite a gemstone that is both a collector’s dream and a testament to the hidden treasures of the Earth.
Beyond its visual appeal, Poudretteite also carries a sense of wonder and discovery. As we continue to explore the depths of our planet, gems like Poudretteite remind us that there are still mysteries waiting to be uncovered, waiting to reveal their beauty and secrets to those who appreciate their rarity and allure.
9. Taaffeite: A Fortuitous Discovery
Taaffeite
Taaffeite stands as a symbol of the unexpected and the extraordinary. Named after its discoverer, gemologist Richard Taaffe, this alluring gem has captivated collectors and enthusiasts with its enigmatic charm and captivating hues.
Taaffeite’s story began with a case of mistaken identity. In 1945, a spinel gemstone from Sri Lanka was initially misclassified as spinel, but upon closer examination, it was revealed to be an entirely new gemstone species. This serendipitous discovery unveiled a gem of stunning lavender to mauve shades, often embraced by collectors for its rarity and captivating color.
The scarcity of Taaffeite has made it a true gemological rarity. This gem is found in only a few select locations around the world, primarily in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and a few other regions. Its limited availability, coupled with its exquisite appearance, has given rise to its status as a highly sought-after collector’s gem.
One of the most intriguing aspects of Taaffeite is its chameleon-like nature. The gem can exhibit different colors depending on the lighting conditions and the angle from which it is viewed. This color-shifting quality adds a touch of mystique to its allure, making it a gem that continues to surprise and delight those who admire it.
Taaffeite’s journey from obscurity to gemological fame serves as a reminder of the ongoing exploration of our planet’s hidden treasures. Its delicate lavender hues, paired with its captivating play of colors, create a gemstone that sparks curiosity and admiration. As collectors and enthusiasts continue to seek out the rare and the exceptional, Taaffeite stands as a gemstone that embodies the magic of discovery and the allure of the unknown.
10. Serendibite: Named after Serendib
Serendibite
Named after the old Arabic name for Sri Lanka, “Serendib,” this gemstone is celebrated for its deep blue to bluish-green hues that evoke a sense of mystery and enchantment.
Serendibite’s story began on the island of Sri Lanka, where it was first discovered in the early 20th century. Its stunning blue color, often reminiscent of the depths of the ocean, immediately set it apart as a gemstone of exceptional beauty. With hues that range from rich navy blues to vibrant teals, Serendibite has captured the attention of collectors and gem enthusiasts worldwide.
What makes Serendibite particularly captivating is its rarity. The gem is found in only a few select locations, including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and a handful of other regions. Its limited geographic occurrence has elevated its status as a sought-after collector’s gem, adding an element of exclusivity to its allure.
Serendibite’s mesmerizing appearance is a result of its unique mineral composition. Comprising aluminum, magnesium, silicon, and oxygen, this gemstone captures and reflects light in a way that produces its signature deep blue colors. Its pleochroism, which causes the gem to display different colors when viewed from different angles, adds to its complexity and charm.
In addition to its visual allure, Serendibite carries a sense of history and connection to the island from which it takes its name. The gem’s deep blue hues have led to associations with the sea, symbolizing tranquility, depth, and the mysteries that lie beneath the surface.
As collectors and gem enthusiasts continue to seek out the rarest and most remarkable gems, Serendibite shines as a testament to the hidden treasures of the Earth. Its deep blue and bluish-green colors, combined with its scarcity, create an aura of intrigue and fascination. Serendibite stands as a gemstone that invites us to explore the mysteries of the natural world and the captivating beauty that lies within it.
11. Black Opal: Play-of-Color in Darkness
Black Opal
Black Opal’s story begins in Australia, where it is primarily mined. The opal-rich fields of Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, have been the source of many exquisite Black Opal specimens. What distinguishes Black Opal from other opal varieties is its deep, dark base color, which sets the stage for its vibrant play of colors.
Opals are known for their unique optical properties, specifically their ability to diffract light into an array of spectral colors. Black Opal, with its dark body tone, allows these colors to shine even more brilliantly, creating a mesmerizing dance of hues that change with the angle of observation and lighting conditions.
The play of colors within Black Opal is a result of the arrangement of silica spheres within the gemstone. When light enters the opal, it interacts with these spheres, producing the spectral colors that make opals so captivating. From fiery reds and oranges to cool blues and greens, the spectrum of colors that Black Opal exhibits is a testament to nature’s ability to create breathtaking beauty.
Black Opal’s allure extends beyond its captivating play of colors. It has earned a special place in jewelry design, where its unique appearance is often the centerpiece of exquisite pieces. From opulent rings to intricate pendants, Black Opal’s striking beauty adds a touch of magic to any jewelry creation.
12. Jeremejevite: Elusive and Enchanting
Jeremejevite
Jeremejevite’s story began in 1883 when it was discovered in Siberia and named after the Russian mineralogist Pavel Vladimirovich Eremeev. However, it was initially mistaken for aquamarine due to its similar blue color. It wasn’t until later that Jeremejevite was recognized as a distinct mineral species with its own unique properties.
What sets Jeremejevite apart is its scarcity. The gemstone is found in only a few locations worldwide, including Namibia, Madagascar, and Afghanistan. This limited geographic occurrence, combined with its captivating color, has elevated Jeremejevite to the status of a collector’s gem, highly sought after for its rarity and aesthetic appeal.
One of the gem’s most enchanting features is its pleochroism, which causes it to display different shades of blue when viewed from different angles. This optical phenomenon adds depth and dimension to the gem’s color, enhancing its allure and capturing the ever-changing shades of the sky.
Jeremejevite’s delicate beauty has also made it a favorite among jewelry designers. From simple settings that showcase its natural elegance to more intricate designs that highlight its unique color play, Jeremejevite’s versatility in jewelry creation is a testament to its timeless charm.
13. Red Diamond: A Rarity Among Rarities
Very rare Argyle Cardinal Fancy Red diamond
Red Diamonds get their captivating hue from the presence of nitrogen within their crystal lattice, which interacts with light in a way that produces their fiery red color. While most diamonds owe their color to impurities or structural defects, the specific conditions required to create a red diamond are exceptionally rare, making them some of the rarest gemstones on Earth.
The most famous red diamond is the “Moussaieff Red Diamond,” a stunning gem weighing 5.11 carats. Its extraordinary color and rarity have earned it a place among the world’s most valuable diamonds. Other notable red diamonds include the “Rob Red” and the “Supreme Purple Star,” both of which boast unique color combinations that set them apart.
The scarcity of red diamonds has propelled them into the realm of high-profile auctions and elite collections. Their limited availability and unparalleled beauty have led to some red diamonds achieving astronomical prices in the market, often breaking records for the most expensive per-carat prices ever paid for gemstones.
In addition to their rarity, red diamonds carry an aura of mystique and desire. The color red is often associated with passion, love, and power, making red diamonds even more alluring to those who seek a gem that embodies these qualities.
14. Padparadscha Sapphire: The Lotus Blossom Gem
Padparadscha Sapphire
Named after the Sinhalese word for the lotus blossom’s delicate color, this gemstone is celebrated for its enchanting blend of pink and orange hues, reminiscent of a breathtaking sunset over a serene landscape.
Padparadscha Sapphires are predominantly found in Sri Lanka, where the gem’s name is derived from its association with the lotus flower, a revered symbol in Eastern cultures. The gem’s color ranges from delicate shades of peachy-pink to vivid orange-pink, creating a captivating palette that evokes a sense of warmth and tranquility.
What sets Padparadscha Sapphire apart is its rarity and the unique interplay of colors within each gem. The delicate balance between pink and orange tones is a result of the presence of trace elements, such as chromium and iron, within the crystal structure of the sapphire. This exquisite combination of colors makes Padparadscha Sapphire highly sought after by collectors and connoisseurs.
The gem’s color not only reflects the hues of nature but also carries symbolism. The pink-orange blend is often associated with qualities such as love, harmony, and creativity, making Padparadscha Sapphire a gemstone that holds deep emotional meaning for those who wear it.
In the realm of jewelry, Padparadscha Sapphires are prized for their versatility. They can be featured in a variety of settings, from classic solitaire rings to more elaborate designs that showcase the gem’s unique color play. Their scarcity and distinctive appearance add an element of exclusivity to any piece of jewelry they grace.
As gem enthusiasts and collectors explore the world of colored gemstones, Padparadscha Sapphire remains a treasure that captures the splendor of nature’s palette. Its harmonious blend of colors, combined with its rarity, creates a gemstone that is as elegant as it is enchanting, embodying the serene beauty of a sunset within a precious jewel.
15. Sugilite: A Gem of Royal Purple
Sugilite
Sugilite was first discovered in Japan in the 1940s and later in South Africa. Its vivid purple color is attributed to its manganese content, which infuses the gemstone with shades ranging from delicate lavender to rich deep violet. The gem’s color, coupled with its rarity, has made it a favorite among individuals who appreciate gems with a touch of mystique.
What sets Sugilite apart is not only its physical beauty but also its spiritual significance. In metaphysical circles, Sugilite is often regarded as a stone of spiritual enlightenment, inner peace, and emotional healing. It is believed to enhance intuition, promote self-discovery, and facilitate a deeper understanding of one’s life path.
Sugilite’s role in holistic and alternative healing practices has brought it into the spotlight, with proponents attributing various metaphysical benefits to the gem. Its energy is thought to resonate with the crown and third eye chakras, helping individuals connect with their higher selves and access higher states of consciousness.
Beyond its metaphysical properties, Sugilite has also made its mark in the world of jewelry design. Its distinctive color and rarity make it an intriguing choice for those who seek gemstones that stand out from the ordinary. From statement rings to elegant pendants, Sugilite’s allure continues to captivate the hearts of those who value the beauty and symbolism that gemstones can offer.
16. Tanzanite: Trichroism in Blue
The Mawenzi : The Largest Tanzanite rough in the World
Tanzanite is celebrated for its mesmerizing blue hues that range from ultramarine to violet.
Tanzanite’s story began in 1967 in the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. Originally mistaken for sapphire due to its rich blue color, Tanzanite was later identified as a unique mineral species. Its vivid blue-violet tones, ranging from deep indigo to lighter lilac shades, have since captured the imagination of collectors and gem enthusiasts worldwide.
What sets Tanzanite apart is its exceptional pleochroism, an optical phenomenon that causes the gem to display different colors when viewed from different angles. This unique property adds depth and intrigue to Tanzanite’s appearance, creating a gemstone that seems to shimmer and shift in hue as it catches the light.
Tanzanite’s coloration is attributed to its mineral composition and the presence of vanadium. The gem’s rich blue-violet tones make it a favorite for those who appreciate gems with a touch of both cool and warm colors, resembling the union of sapphire’s blue and amethyst’s purple.
Tanzanite’s allure extends beyond its captivating appearance. Its discovery in a single location, the Merelani Hills of Tanzania, has led to its classification as a “one-source gem.” With mining activity focused primarily on this area, Tanzanite’s availability remains limited, adding an element of exclusivity to its charm.
In the realm of jewelry, Tanzanite’s versatility shines. It can be found in a variety of settings, from classic solitaire rings to contemporary designs that highlight its unique color and play of light. Its rarity and mesmerizing color make it an exquisite choice for those who seek a gemstone that is as exceptional as it is beautiful.
17. Paraiba Tourmaline: Neon Brilliance
Paraiba Tourmaline
Paraiba Tourmaline’s captivating story began in the 1980s when it was discovered in the Brazilian state of Paraíba, which gives the gem its name. What sets Paraiba Tourmaline apart is its remarkable neon-like coloration, ranging from vivid turquoise blue to mesmerizing green. This unparalleled color comes from the presence of copper and manganese trace elements within the crystal structure.
The rarity of true Paraiba Tourmaline cannot be overstated. While other types of tourmaline are found in various locations, genuine Paraiba Tourmaline is sourced primarily from Brazil, as well as from Mozambique and Nigeria. Its limited geographic occurrence, combined with its unique and vibrant color, has made Paraiba Tourmaline one of the most sought-after and valuable gemstones in the world.
The gem’s exceptional color and rarity have earned it a place in both high-end jewelry and the hearts of collectors. Designers are drawn to Paraiba Tourmaline’s electric hues, which can add a vibrant pop of color to any jewelry piece. Whether set as a solitaire stone or surrounded by complementary diamonds, Paraiba Tourmaline’s beauty shines with an almost otherworldly brilliance.
Beyond its aesthetic allure, Paraiba Tourmaline has also captured the attention of those who appreciate ethical and sustainable gem sourcing. The gemstone’s discovery led to a surge in interest in responsible mining practices, as well as the protection of local environments where these treasures are found.
18. Kashmir Sapphire: Velvety Blue Elegance
A selection of both rough and cut Kashmir sapphires. The cut stones range from 6–14 ct. (Photo: Henry Hänni/SSEF)
The story of the Kashmir Sapphire begins in the late 19th century when a remarkable discovery was made high in the remote mountains of Kashmir, India. Nestled amid the breathtaking landscapes, these sapphires showcased an unparalleled velvety blue color, often described as “cornflower blue.” The gem’s unique color was attributed to the presence of a combination of iron and titanium within its crystal lattice.
What sets Kashmir Sapphires apart is their mesmerizing color and incredible rarity. The velvety blue hue, coupled with exceptional clarity, creates a gemstone that is a true testament to nature’s artistry. However, what truly elevates the Kashmir Sapphire to iconic status is the fact that these sapphires were only mined for a short period of time in the late 19th to early 20th century. Due to the limited duration of mining, the Kashmir Sapphire is now an elusive treasure that is exceedingly rare and highly coveted.
The allure of Kashmir Sapphires extends beyond their appearance and rarity. These gems have a storied history and have graced the jewelry of royalty and the elite. Their deep blue color evokes feelings of serenity and elegance, making them a favorite for those who seek both beauty and meaning in their gemstone choices.
As the world of gemstones continues to evolve, Kashmir Sapphires remain a symbol of enduring beauty and timeless allure. Their velvety blue hues, coupled with their legendary history, create a gemstone that transcends trends and speaks to the heart of gem enthusiasts and collectors alike. Kashmir Sapphires stand as a reminder that the Earth holds treasures that are not only visually stunning but also hold stories of the past and dreams of the future.
Chameleon Diamonds are a subset of naturally occurring diamonds with a unique and fascinating characteristic: they have the ability to temporarily change color when exposed to certain environmental conditions. Typically, a Chameleon Diamond will shift from its original color, which is often a light olive or grayish green, to a deeper, more intense greenish-yellow or brownish hue. The color change occurs when the diamond is subjected to heat or light and then gradually reverts to its original color when left in the dark.
The exact cause of this phenomenon is still the subject of ongoing scientific research, but it is believed to be related to the diamond’s atomic structure and the presence of hydrogen within the crystal lattice. The temporary nature of the color change adds an element of intrigue to the gem, as it undergoes a metamorphosis before returning to its original state.
Chameleon Diamonds are exceedingly rare, making them highly sought after by collectors. Their unique color-changing property adds an element of surprise and delight to these already precious gems. Jewelry designers and connoisseurs are drawn to their captivating nature, creating pieces that showcase the gem’s dynamic transformation.
The mystique of Chameleon Diamonds lies not only in their rarity and color-changing ability but also in the ongoing research that seeks to unravel the secrets behind this phenomenon. As scientists continue to explore the mysteries of these gems, Chameleon Diamonds remain a gemological wonder that reminds us of the complex and enchanting nature of the Earth’s treasures.
20. Blue Garnet: A Color-Changing Wonder
Blue Garnet
The Blue Garnet’s captivating journey began in the late 1990s when it was discovered in the Bekily region of Madagascar. Its name hints at its remarkable characteristic: a mesmerizing shift from blue-green under daylight to purplish-red under incandescent light. This exceptional color change is a result of the interplay between the garnet’s trace elements and its crystal lattice structure.
The precise combination of vanadium, chromium, and other elements within the Blue Garnet’s composition is responsible for its extraordinary color-changing phenomenon. The gem’s ability to showcase two distinct hues depending on the lighting conditions sets it apart as a gemological rarity that continues to intrigue gemologists and collectors alike.
The rarity of the Blue Garnet is further elevated by the fact that it is found in only a few select locations around the world. Its limited geographic occurrence, coupled with its color-changing beauty, has made it highly sought after by collectors and enthusiasts who appreciate gems that offer a captivating visual experience.
In the world of jewelry design, Blue Garnets have been embraced for their unique color-shifting nature. Jewelry pieces featuring Blue Garnets can showcase the gem’s dual personality, transitioning seamlessly from one enchanting color to another. From solitaire rings to intricate pendant designs, the gem’s color-changing ability adds an element of surprise and fascination.
Conclusion
The world of gemstones is a treasure trove of diversity, beauty, and rarity. While some gemstones are widely recognized, there exists a realm of rare gems that are even more captivating due to their scarcity and exceptional characteristics. From painite to
What is the risk of a volcano erupting? To answer this question, scientists need information about its underlying internal structure. However, gathering this data can take several years of fieldwork, analyses and monitoring, which explains why only 30% of active volcanoes are currently well documented. A team from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) has developed a method for rapidly obtaining valuable information. It is based on three parameters: the height of the volcano, the thickness of the layer of rock separating the volcano’s reservoir from the surface, and the average chemical composition of the magma. These results open new prospects for identifying volcanoes that present the greatest risk and are published in the journal Geology.
The Earth is home to some 1,500 active volcanoes, yet we only have accurate data for 30% of them. This is due to the difficulty of observing their “fuel,” the famous magma, which is rich in information. This molten rock is first generated at a depth of between 60 km and 150 km in the Earth’s mantle, whereas the deepest human boreholes generally only reach a depth of around ten kilometres, preventing direct observation. The production rate of magma in the Earth’s deep crust beneath a volcano determines the size and frequency of future eruptions.
This lack of data is a danger as more than 800 million people live close to active volcanoes. Therefore, in many regions, there is no basis on which to assess the risk a given volcano poses and the extent of the protective measures to be taken — the evacuation perimeter, for example — in the event of a suspected eruption.
Geochemical and geophysical analysis methods are regularly used by scientists to monitor volcanoes, but it can take decades to gain an in-depth understanding of how a specific volcano works. Thanks to recent work by the team of Luca Caricchi, full professor at the Department of Earth Sciences of the UNIGE Faculty of Science, it is now possible to obtain valuable information more rapidly.
This method uses three easy-to-measure parameters: the height of the volcano, the thickness of the rocks separating the volcano’s “reservoir” from the surface, and the chemical composition of the magma released over its eruptive history. The first can be determined by satellite, the second by geophysics and/or chemical analysis of minerals (crystals) in the volcanic rocks, and the third by direct sampling in the field.
A “snapshot”
By analysing existing data on the volcanic arc of the Lesser Antilles, a well-studied archipelago of volcanic islands, the UNIGE team has highlighted a correlation between the height of volcanoes and the rate at which magma is produced. “The highest volcanoes produce the biggest eruptions on average during their life. In other words, they can erupt a greater quantity of magma in a single event,” explains Oliver Higgins, a former doctoral student in Luca Caricchi’s group and first author of the study.
Scientists have also found that the thinner the Earth’s crust beneath the volcano, the closer its magma reservoir is to the surface, and the more thermally mature the volcano is. “When the magma rises from depth, it tends to cool and solidify, which halts its ascent. But when the supply of magma is large, magma retains its temperature, accumulates in the reservoir that will fuel a future eruption, and ‘eats away’ at the Earth’s crust,” explains Luca Caricchi, the second and last author of the study.
Identifying the volcanoes most at risk
Finally, the researchers observed that the average chemical composition of magma that has already erupted is an indicator of its explosiveness. “High levels of silica, for example, indicate that the volcano is fed by a large quantities of magma. In this case, there is a greater risk of a large, explosive eruption from that volcano,” explains the researcher.
Together, the three parameters identified by the UNIGE team produce a “snapshot” of a volcano’s internal structure. They enable an initial assessment of the hazard associated with poorly studied volcanoes, without the need for major technical and financial resources. This method can be used to identify the active volcanoes that are most likely to produce a large-scale eruption, and that require increased surveillance.
Reference:
Oliver Higgins, Luca Caricchi. Eruptive dynamics reflect crustal structure and mantle productivity beneath volcanoes. Geology, 2023; DOI: 10.1130/G51355.1
Tiny mineral inclusions picture for the first time oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and changed the composition of the mantle. Credit: Hugo Moreira / Nature Geoscience
Using synchrotron techniques, scientists have unveiled important information on The Great Oxidation Event by studying apatite inclusions in zircon crystals from old magmas with the ESRF — Extremely Brilliant Source. The results are published in Nature Geoscience.
Around 2.4 billion years ago, a pivotal moment in Earth’s history took place: The Great Oxidation Event. During this period, a significant amount of oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere. This surge in oxygen production led to a dramatic shift in the composition of the atmosphere, altering the chemistry of the planet. The event marked a turning point as oxygen levels rose, enabling the development of more complex multicellular life forms and fundamentally reshaping Earth’s ecosystems.
Plate tectonics are an effective mechanism for the cycling and interchange of elements among Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and mantle. As mountains undergo weathering and erosion through interactions with water and the atmosphere, they break down into sediments. These sediments are then partially returned to the mantle through subduction processes (one tectonic plate sinking beneath another). The formation of magmas in the mantle above subduction zones provides a unique opportunity to explore how the atmosphere could have impacted the mantle by assimilating materials from subducted sediments, offering insights into this intriguing geological relationship.
Scientists have long tried to study the interaction between atmosphere and the Earth’s mantle. The mission is already complicated to be accomplished in the modern Earth, and even more so in the early Earth, when the atmosphere and plate tectonics were changing at rapid rates. A team led by the University of Montpellier and University of Portsmouth teamed up with the ESRF — The European Synchrotron- and found a way to overcome obstacles by studying apatite inclusions in zircon from subduction zones.
“In 2017, a paper on the mineral apatite unveiled that when it grows at reduced conditions, meaning there is little or no free oxygen for chemical reactions, its sulphur would show a very specific signature. However, if it crystalised in oxidised conditions, the sulphur inside the apatite would look very different. This means that apatite is a proxy for redox conditions,” explains Hugo Moreira, a CNRS postdoctoral researcher at the University of Montpellier and first author of the paper.
Moreira and colleagues decided to explore inclusions of phosphate-mineral apatite in zircon grains that are crystallized in magmas formed in an ancient subduction zone, and measured their sulphur valence speciation using X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) at the ESRF, the brightest synchrotron light source.
Sulphur incorporation and speciation in apatite is intrinsically dependent on the oxygen fugacity of the magma and therefore ideal for assessing the oxidation state during the evolution of magmatic systems. “Using apatite inclusions in zircons rather than apatite from the rock matrix was paramount, as the inclusions have been shielded by the extremely robust zircon crystals, preserving their original composition,” explains Moreira.
The experiment results show that apatite inclusions in zircons from magmas that crystallised prior to the Great Oxidation Event have a relatively reduced sulphur redox state, whereas after the Great Oxidation Event they are more oxidised. The analysis on zircon shows that these magmas shared a similar source and that the younger samples had incorporated a sediment component. Overall, the clear implication is that sediments affected by an increasingly oxidised atmosphere modified the mantle and shifted the fugacity of magmas towards more oxidised conditions.
“Our study shows that investigating apatite inclusions in zircon using synchrotron X-rays is a powerful tool to constraint a critical magma parameter,” concludes Moreira.
The next step for the team is to study other magmas that crystallised in key periods of Earth’s history, such as the Neoproterozoic Oxidation Event (beginning 850 million years ago) and when the first signs of oxygen emerged in the Archaean period.
Reference:
Hugo Moreira, Craig Storey, Emilie Bruand, James Darling, Mike Fowler, Marine Cotte, Edgar E. Villalobos-Portillo, Fleurice Parat, Luís Seixas, Pascal Philippot, Bruno Dhuime. Sub-arc mantle fugacity shifted by sediment recycling across the Great Oxidation Event. Nature Geoscience, 2023; DOI: 10.1038/s41561-023-01258-4
The Earth is getting hotter and consequences have been made manifest this summer around the world. Looking back in geological history, global warming events are not uncommon: Around 56 million years ago, during the period known as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), the temperatures rose by an average of 5 to 8 degrees Celsius. This development was most likely linked to increased volcanism and the associated release of masses of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The higher temperatures persisted for about 200,000 years. Back in 2021, Professor Philip Pogge von Strandmann of Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU) had already investigated the effect that eventually led to global cooling and climatic recovery after the PETM warming.
In short: Rainwater combined with the atmospheric carbon dioxide, resulting in carbonic acid that caused enhanced weathering of rock, thus releasing calcium and magnesium. Rivers then transported the calcium, magnesium, and carbonic acid into the oceans where the calcium, magnesium — and also the carbon dioxide — came together to form insoluble limestone. “In other words, there is a feedback effect that helps control the climate. High temperatures accelerate the chemical rock weathering process, reducing the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, allowing the climate to recover,” said Pogge von Strandmann.
Climate required twice as long to regenerate 40 million years ago
Climate warming occurred again 16 million years after the PETM during the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum or MECO. Although volcanic activity resulted in the discharge of roughly the same amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere as during the PETM, it took far longer for the climate to restabilize. The warming effect lasted for an immense 400,000 years, twice as long as in the PETM. Why was recovery so slow during that period?
In searching for an answer, Pogge von Strandmann and co-authors, including first author Alex Krause, began analyzing 40-million-year-old oceanic carbonates and clay minerals to compare the results with those for similar 56-million-year-old examples. “Just as during the PETM, there was also intensified weathering and erosion in the MECO. However, there was far less exposed rock on the Earth’s surface 40 million years ago. Instead, the Earth was extensively covered by a global rainforest the soil of which largely consisted of clay minerals,” explained the researcher. In contrast with rock, clay does not weather; in fact, it is actually the product of weathering. “So despite the high temperatures, the widespread clay soil prevented rocks from being effectively weathered, a process known as soil shielding,” the geoscientist pointed out.
Enhanced weathering for climate protection
How can we use this knowledge in today’s world? “We study paleoclimates to determine whether and how we can positively influence our present climate. One option might be to boost the chemical weathering of rock. To help achieve this, we could plough finely crushed rock into our fields,” said Pogge von Strandmann. The fine-grained particles of rock would erode rapidly, resulting in the binding of atmospheric carbon dioxide, thus enabling the climate to recuperate. Negative emissions technologies (NETs) such as this involving the absorption of carbon dioxide are the subjects of intense research across the globe. At the same time, however, if the weathering results in the formation of clay, the effects of the process would be significantly less efficient, as Pogge von Strandmann has discovered. Clay retains the calcium and magnesium that would otherwise be delivered to the ocean. The carbon dioxide would continue to flow into the oceans, but it would not be bound there and would be able to escape back into the atmosphere. In this case, the weathering effect would have next to no influence on the climate.
If the rock particles fully dissolve as a result of weathering, the enhanced weathering concept would turn out to be 100 percent efficient. However, if all the weathered materials were turned into clay, this would in its turn completely nullify the effect. In reality, the actual outcome would probably be somewhere between the two extremes: While there was enhanced erosion of rock in the PETM so that the climate normalized more rapidly, clay formation was predominant during the MECO. The extent to which the crushed rock dissolves and how much of it is preserved as clay depends on a range of local factors, such as the globally pre-existing levels of clay and rock. So in order to establish whether the process of enhanced weathering is a viable approach, it would first be necessary to find out how much clay is formed during the weathering process at each potential location.
The corresponding research paper has recently been published in Nature Geoscience. Also involved in the project were researchers at University College London and the University of Essex in the UK as well as Utrecht University in the Netherlands.
Reference:
Alexander J. Krause, Appy Sluijs, Robin van der Ploeg, Timothy M. Lenton, Philip A. E. Pogge von Strandmann. Enhanced clay formation key in sustaining the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum. Nature Geoscience, 2023; 16 (8): 730 DOI: 10.1038/s41561-023-01234-y
Sea salt hides a secret: tiny droplets of the seawater from which it came, preserving geologic history.
Using specializing equipment obtained from National Science Foundation grant funds, Mebrahtu Weldeghebriel, PhD ’22, a postdoctoral fellow at Princeton University, and Binghamton University Distinguished Professor of Earth Sciences Tim Lowenstein were able to reconstruct changes in seawater chemistry over the last 150 million years, also gaining insight into related geological processes and climate changes. Their article, “Seafloor Hydrothermal Systems Control Long-Term Changes in Seawater [Li+]: Evidence from Fluid Inclusions,” was recently published in the journal Science Advances.
The ocean “is like a giant soup of different elements,” Lowenstein explained. “Sodium and chloride are the most common ones, but there are dozens of others dissolved in seawater in trace amounts such as lithium.”
They looked at sea salt (halite) formed at various times over the past 150 million years in geographically diverse sedimentary basins in the United States, Europe, Asia and Africa. Within the salt samples were tiny pockets containing a bit of ancient seawater.
To access the tiny droplets, the researchers used a laser to drill holes into the salt crystals and then a mass spectrometer to analyze the different trace elements present. In this research, they focused specifically on the concentration of lithium, a trace element that sustained a seven-fold decrease over the past 150 million years, paralleled by a rise in magnesium to calcium ratios.
But why?
The cause for the long-term variations in seawater composition has been debated for the past two decades. The researchers proposed that the decline in lithium concentration in seawater is mainly associated with reduced production of oceanic crust and decreased seafloor hydrothermal activity, both of which are influenced by the movements of tectonic plates. The slowdown in plate activity over the past 150 million years led to less lithium being added to the ocean and reduced amounts of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere, which ultimately led to global cooling and the present ice age. Turning back the clock 150 million years, the earth was a warmer place with more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and more lithium in the sea.
“There is a close link between ocean chemistry and atmospheric chemistry,” Weldeghebriel said. “Whatever changes happen in the ocean also reflect what’s happening in the atmosphere.”
Overall, Weldeghebriel and Lowenstein’s research has made a significant advance in understanding the chemistry of Earth’s ancient oceans and how the movement of tectonic plates has influenced the composition of our Earth’s hydrosphere and atmosphere. Such chemical changes impact biology, as well, such as the marine creatures that build their shells out of calcium carbonate.
“The oceans and atmosphere are connected to one another, and how they change is related,” Lowenstein explained. “Everything is connected.”
Reference:
Mebrahtu F. Weldeghebriel, Tim K. Lowenstein. Seafloor hydrothermal systems control long-term changes in seawater [Li + ]: Evidence from fluid inclusions. Science Advances, 2023; 9 (30) DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf1605
Note: The above post is reprinted from materials provided by Binghamton University. Original written by Jennifer Micale.
Oxidised apatite inclusions. Credit: Dr Hugo Moreira
An international team of scientists have uncovered an important link between Earth’s early atmosphere and the chemistry of its deep mantle.
The study, which was led by researchers at the University of Portsmouth and University of Montpellier, sheds new light on the evolution of life on our planet and the rise of atmospheric oxygen.
The team investigated magmas formed in ancient subduction zones, where portions of Earth’s crust sink back into the mantle, from a pivotal moment in Earth’s history—the Great Oxidation Event (GOE). This event, which is estimated to have happened between 2.1 and 2.4 billion years ago, was a period of time when oxygen levels in Earth’s atmosphere increased rapidly and transformed life and environments on Earth.
However, there has been little research into how atmospheric changes have left their mark on the Earth’s mantle.
The new study, published in the journal Nature Geoscience, examined the role of plate tectonics—the process by which our planet’s outer shell moves and reshapes its surface—in cycling and exchanging elements between the atmosphere, Earth’s surface, and the deep mantle. Until now, reliable methods to understand these interactions were elusive.
By studying magmas from before and after the GOE, the team found a shift from reduced to more oxidized magmas. This was a result of the deep subduction of oxidized sediments from mountains transformed into sediments during weathering and erosion that were then recycled into the mantle via subduction processes—revealing how sediment recycling provided atmospheric access to the mantle.
This discovery implies that these “whiffs” of oxygen may have changed the mantle by contributing to increased oxidation of calc-alkaline magma, altering the composition of the continental crust, and leading to the formation of ore deposits on Earth.
Lead author, Dr. Hugo Moreira from the University of Montpellier and visiting researcher at the University of Portsmouth, said, “With these findings, our understanding of Earth’s ancient ‘breath’ has taken a significant leap forward. Not only does it provide crucial insights into Earth’s geological evolution, but it also sheds light on how the deep Earth and its mantle are intimately connected to atmospheric changes. It provides us a better understanding of the relationship between Earth’s external and internal reservoirs.
“Moreover, it raises fascinating questions about the role that oxygen played in shaping our planet’s history and the conditions that paved the way for life as we know it.”
The research team used the ID21 beamline at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in France to analyze sulfur state in minerals found in two-billion-year-old zircon crystals from the Mineiro Belt in Brazil, which acted as time capsules, preserving their original composition. They discovered that minerals from magmas that crystallized before the GOE had a reduced sulfur state. However, after the GOE, these became more oxidized.
Dr. Moreira said, “Mantle oxygen fugacity, in simple terms, is a measure of oxygen’s ability to drive chemical reactions in magmas and is critical for understanding volcanic activity and ore formation. However, in the past, we lacked a reliable way to track changes in this parameter for ancient parts of Earth’s history—until now.
“It provides a powerful tool for understanding the relationship between Earth’s external and internal reservoirs. Sulfur speciation and magma fugacity are dynamic parameters that can change throughout a magma’s journey from formation to crystallization. While our study considered factors like pressure and temperature, further analyses are needed to trace the complete ‘fugacity path’ from magma generation to final crystallization.”
Co-author Professor Craig Storey, Professor of Geology at the University of Portsmouth, said, “Our study opens exciting new avenues of research, offering a deeper understanding of the Earth’s ancient past and its profound connection to the development of our atmosphere. It challenges us to ponder questions about the evolution of magma types over time and the intricate interplay between plate tectonics and atmospheric cycles.”
Dr. Moreira added, “As we continue to probe the mysteries of Earth’s geological history, one thing is certain—there is much more to discover beneath the surface.”
The study involved researchers from the University of Portsmouth, the Universities of Brest, Montpellier and University of Sorbonne, (France), the Federal University of Ouro Preto and University of São Paulo (Brazil) and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility.
Reference:
Sub-arc mantle fugacity shifted by sediment recycling across the Great Oxidation Event’, Nature Geoscience (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41561-023-01258-4
Obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass, has captivated humanity for centuries with its mesmerizing beauty and unique properties. Formed from rapidly cooled lava, obsidian’s intriguing appearance and versatility have made it a sought-after material for both practical and aesthetic purposes. While obsidian comes in various forms and colors, some types stand out for their rarity and exorbitant price tags. In this article, we’ll delve into the world’s rarest and most expensive types of obsidian, exploring their origins, characteristics, and the reasons behind their high value.
1. Rainbow Obsidian: Nature’s Display of Color
Polished Rainbow Obsidian
Rainbow obsidian, often referred to as “Sheen Obsidian,” is a captivating variation of this volcanic glass that showcases a stunning array of iridescent colors. The play of colors is a result of microscopic mineral inclusions, such as magnetite nanoparticles, diffusing light in intricate patterns. This phenomenon creates a visual treat for those who admire this exquisite gem.
The rarity of rainbow obsidian stems from the specific conditions required for its formation. As the lava cools rapidly, the mineral inclusions need to align perfectly to create the rainbow effect. This intricate process occurs only in limited geological environments, making rainbow obsidian a rare find indeed.
Collectors and jewelry enthusiasts are particularly drawn to rainbow obsidian due to its striking appearance. Crafted into pendants, beads, and other jewelry pieces, this obsidian variety allows individuals to carry a piece of nature’s artistry wherever they go. The rarity of rainbow obsidian contributes significantly to its high market value, making it a coveted gemstone among collectors.
2. Fire Obsidian: A Blaze of Magnificence
Fire obsidian
Fire obsidian, also known as “Fire Sheen Obsidian,” is an exceptional type of obsidian that embodies the fierce beauty of blazing flames. This variety is renowned for its vibrant play of colors, which range from deep reds to fiery oranges and mesmerizing golds. The name “fire” is an apt descriptor for its intense and captivating hues.
The formation of fire obsidian is a delicate process that requires the presence of certain mineral elements within the volcanic environment. As the lava cools rapidly, these minerals create the distinctive iridescence that defines fire obsidian. The rarity of the necessary geological conditions contributes to the scarcity of this captivating gem.
Due to its vivid and fiery appearance, fire obsidian is highly sought after by collectors and gem enthusiasts alike. Jewelry designers often incorporate fire obsidian into their creations, adding a touch of fiery elegance to rings, necklaces, and earrings. The rarity and visual impact of fire obsidian contribute to its premium price in the market.
Spiderweb obsidian, as its name suggests, exhibits a delicate web-like pattern that traverses its surface. This captivating variety of obsidian features intersecting lines that resemble a spider’s intricate silk threads, lending it an air of mystery and elegance. The web patterns are usually formed by mineral inclusions that settle in fractures as the lava cools.
The intricate formation process of spiderweb obsidian, involving the precise alignment of mineral inclusions, contributes to its rarity. Each piece of spiderweb obsidian is a unique work of natural art, with its distinct web-like pattern telling a geological story millions of years in the making.
Collectors and jewelry aficionados are drawn to the enigmatic charm of spiderweb obsidian. Crafted into polished cabochons or carved into ornamental pieces, this variety of obsidian adds an element of fascination to any collection. The rarity and aesthetic appeal of spiderweb obsidian make it one of the most valuable and sought-after forms of obsidian on the market.
4. Midnight Lace Obsidian: Elegance in Black and White
Midnight Lace Obsidian
Midnight Lace Obsidian, also known as “Lace Agate Obsidian,” is a mesmerizing variety characterized by its intricate lacy patterns in contrasting black and white. This variety is formed when mineral-rich solutions infiltrate the volcanic glass and create the delicate filigree-like patterns that adorn its surface.
The interplay of light and dark in midnight lace obsidian creates a striking visual effect, making it a favorite among jewelry designers and collectors seeking unique and elegant pieces. This obsidian variety is often transformed into pendants, earrings, and other ornamental jewelry items, showcasing the delicate beauty of its lace-like patterns.
The rarity of midnight lace obsidian arises from the specific geological conditions required for its formation. The intricate process of mineral infiltration and the subsequent cooling of lava with precise timing contribute to its scarcity in the natural world. As a result, midnight lace obsidian commands a high price in the market, appealing to those who appreciate its intricate beauty.
5. Mahogany Obsidian: Earthy Elegance
Mahogany Obsidian
Mahogany Obsidian derives its name from its rich brown hue that resembles the warm tones of mahogany wood. This variety of obsidian often features intricate patterns caused by the inclusion of iron oxide or other mineral impurities during formation. The resulting designs can resemble tree branches or intricate landscapes, adding a sense of artistic flair to each piece. Mahogany Obsidian is known for its grounding properties and is often used in spiritual practices. The combination of its aesthetic appeal and metaphysical significance contributes to its rarity and elevated price tag.
6. Black Amethyst Obsidian: A Sublime Fusion
Black Amethyst Obsidian
Black Amethyst Obsidian, also known as “Black Amethyst Sage” or “Black Amethyst Flower,” is a captivating fusion of deep black and luxurious purple hues. This unique combination is achieved through the interplay of amethyst and obsidian during its formation. The result is a stone that exudes both the protective energy of obsidian and the spiritual properties of amethyst. The scarcity of Black Amethyst Obsidian is attributed to the specific conditions required for the amalgamation of these two minerals, making it a rare and prized addition to any collection.
In Conclusion
Obsidian, with its captivating beauty and intriguing origins, continues to be a source of fascination for enthusiasts, collectors, and artisans. The rarest and most expensive types of obsidian, such as rainbow obsidian, fire obsidian, spiderweb obsidian, and midnight lace obsidian, stand as testament to the marvels of nature’s artistic expression. These unique gems, born from volcanic fires and shaped by millennia of geological processes, offer a glimpse into the Earth’s remarkable creative potential. Whether admired as part of a collection or worn as exquisite jewelry, these precious obsidian varieties are a testament to the allure of the natural world’s rarest treasures.
Fossils have been found of several types of abelisaur showing the diversity of dinosaurs in Morocco at the end of the Cretaceous period. (Credit: Andrey Atuchin)
Fossils of primitive cousins of T. rex that had short, bulldog snouts and even shorter arms have been discovered by scientists in Morocco. The two new dinosaur species belong to the Abelisauridae, a family of carnivorous dinosaurs that were counterparts to the tyrannosaurs of the Northern Hemisphere. They lived at the end of the Cretaceous period and show that dinosaurs were diverse in Africa just before their mass extinction by an asteroid 66 million years ago.
Two new species of dinosaur have been found from the end of the Cretaceous in Morocco, just outside of Casablanca. One species, found near the town of Sidi Daoui, is represented by a foot bone from a predator about two and a half metres (eight feet) long. The other, from nearby Sidi Chennane, is the shin bone of a carnivore that grew to around five metres (15 feet) in length.
Both were part of a family of primitive carnivorous dinosaurs known as abelisaurs, and lived alongside the much larger abelisaur Chenanisaurus barbaricus, showing that Morocco was home to diverse dinosaur species just before a giant asteroid struck at the end of the Cretaceous, ending the age of dinosaurs.
Dr Nick Longrich, from the Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath, led the study. He said: “What’s surprising here is that these are marine beds.
“It’s a shallow, tropical sea full of plesiosaurs, mosasaurs, and sharks. It’s not exactly a place you’d expect to find a lot of dinosaurs. But we’re finding them.”
Even though dinosaurs account for a small proportion of the fossils, the region is so rich in fossils, it has produced the best picture of African dinosaurs from the end of the age of dinosaurs.
Rather than finding the same few species, palaeontologists often recover fossils from new species, suggesting the beds host an extremely diverse dinosaur fauna.
So far, the small number of dinosaur fossils that have been recovered represent five different species — a small duckbill dinosaur named Ajnabia, a long-necked titanosaur, the giant abelisaur Chenanisaurus, and now the two new abelisaurs.
Dr Longrich said: “We have other fossils as well, but they’re currently under study. So we can’t say much about them at the moment, except that this was an amazingly diverse dinosaur fauna.”
The last dinosaurs vanished around 66 million years ago, along with as much as 90% of all species on earth, including mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs and ammonites. The pattern of the end-Cretaceous extinction and its causes have been debated for over two hundred years.
A giant asteroid impact in the Yucatan peninsula has been linked to their demise, although it’s been argued that dinosaurs were already in decline. The Moroccan dinosaurs suggest that they thrived in North Africa up to the very end.
“The end of the Cretaceous in western North America definitely seems to become less diverse at the end,” said Longrich. “But that’s just one small part of the world. It’s not clear that you can generalise from the dinosaurs of Wyoming and Montana to the whole world.
“It also grew colder near the end, so it might not be surprising if dinosaurs at higher latitudes became less diverse. But we don’t know much about dinosaurs from lower latitudes.”
In Morocco at least, they seem to have remained diverse and successful up until the end.
“When T. rex reigned as a megapredator in North America, abelisaurs sat at the top of the food chains in North Africa,” said Nour-Eddine Jalil, a professor at the Natural History Museum and a researcher at Universite Cadi Ayyad in Morocco, who was a co-author on the paper.
“The dinosaur remains, despite their rarity, give the same messages as the more abundant marine reptile remains.
“They tell us that, just before the Cretaceous-Paleogene crisis, biodiversity was not declining but on the contrary, was diverse.”
The new study is published in Cretaceous Research by Dr Nick Longrich from the University of Bath, Prof. Xabier Pereda-Suberbiola and Erik Isasmendi of the Basque Country in Bilbao, and Nour-Eddine Jalil of the Museum of Natural History of Paris and Universite Cadi Ayyad in Marrakech.
Reference:
Nicholas R. Longrich, Erik Isasmendi, Xabier Pereda-Suberbiola, Nour-Eddine Jalil. New fossils of Abelisauridae (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the upper Maastrichtian of Morocco, North Africa. Cretaceous Research, 2023; 105677 DOI: 10.1016/j.cretres.2023.105677
Plots of mineral modal abundance and the weight percentage of mineral-bound water (blue lines) for (a) metabasaltic and (b) metasedimentary rocks from the modern Cocos plate at 1.3 GPa and over the range of temperatures along the flat slab top beneath Guerrero.
The Mexican state of Guerrero, located on the country’s Pacific coast, is known for its rich cultural history and for iconic beach destinations like Acapulco. It is also home to a geologically curious subduction zone.
The subduction zone beneath Guerrero is formed by the Cocos plate sliding beneath the North American plate and is shaped in part by a fault-slip phenomenon known as episodic tremor and slow slip (ETS). In contrast to more common slip behaviors such as earthquakes, scientists understand relatively little about how ETS deforms tectonic plates.
P. C. Lindquist and colleagues developed petrologic models to study the variables that drive ETS, focusing on Guerrero as a natural laboratory for plate deformation research. Specifically, the authors investigate how the chemical alteration, or metasomatism, of serpentinized peridotite rock produces talc in the subduction zone. Talc is a weak, hydrous mineral that can preferentially host deformation in subduction zones and, the authors suggest, may facilitate ETS at subduction zone interfaces.
With their petrologic models, the researchers predicted mineral occurrences at the plate interface beneath Guerrero using realistic pressure, temperature, and composition conditions. They found that where ETS occurs in the subduction zone, serpentinites must react with enough of the fluids being released by the subducting Cocos plate to reach 43% silica by weight for talc to form. However, even small silica additions beyond that amount result in significant volumes of talc at the plate interface that should then host deformation in the subduction zone.
The team’s models also predicted that talc grows in serpentinite mainly where subducting basalts undergo enough dehydration to produce sufficient volumes of silica-rich fluid.
Although the models did not replicate the large, geophysically inferred talc volume in the subduction zone beneath Guerrero, they did predict the formation of thin zones of talc-rich rocks near where ETS occurs along the plate interface. The research, according to the authors, shows the importance of including metasomatism in fault slip models, and it provides direction for future research studying seismicity along Mexico’s Pacific coast.
Reference:
P. C. Lindquist et al, Metasomatism and Slow Slip: Talc Production Along the Flat Subduction Plate Interface Beneath Mexico (Guerrero), Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems (2023). DOI: 10.1029/2023GC010981
Dalian Coherent Light Source revealing vacuum ultraviolet photodissociation of sulfur dioxide as an important prebiotic-O2 source. Credit: Yuan Kaijun
The provenance of oxygen (O2) has been linked to the early Earth’s atmospheric and biological evolution. A permanent rise to appreciable concentrations of O2 in the atmosphere, known as the “Great Oxidation Event (GOE),” was estimated to have occurred at around 2.4 billion years ago. However, the cause of the GOE still remains unclear.
Besides the biogenic processes leading to O2 production, the widely accepted abiotic O2 production is through photolysis of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water molecules (H2O).
Now, a research group led by Prof. Yuan Kaijun and Prof. Yang Xueming from the Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics (DICP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has reported oxygen production from vacuum ultraviolet photodissociation of sulfur dioxide (SO2) using the Dalian Coherent Light Source. Their findings were published in Chemical Science on Aug. 1.
“Our experimental results revealed a direct dissociation channel yielding S(1D) + O2 products from vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photodissociation of SO2 in the wavelength range between 120 and 160 nm,” said Prof. Yuan.
Geological evidences have identified the strong activity of SO2 photochemistry during the Earth’s late Archaean eon, which linked to the origin of the sulfur mass independent fractionation in ancient rocks. But its role in the formation of molecular oxygen is ignored.
The quantitative determination demonstrated that O2 production was an important channel from SO2 VUV photodissociation, with a branching ratio of around 30% at the H Lyman-a wavelength (121.6 nm).
The relatively large amounts of SO2 emitted from volcanic eruptions in the Earth’s late Archaean eon imply that VUV photodissociation of SO2 could have provided a crucial additional source term in the O2 budget in Earth’s primitive atmosphere. Therefore, this event may have led to transient O2 accumulation and could be one possible cause of the GOE.
Reference:
Yao Chang et al, Vacuum ultraviolet photodissociation of sulfur dioxide and its implications for oxygen production in the early Earth’s atmosphere, Chemical Science (2023). DOI: 10.1039/D3SC03328G
A team of researchers have confirmed that 107-million-year-old pterosaur bones discovered more than 30 years ago are the oldest of their kind ever found in Australia, providing a rare glimpse into the life of these powerful, flying reptiles that lived among the dinosaurs.
Published in the journal Historical Biology and completed in collaboration with Museums Victoria, the research analysed a partial pelvis bone and a small wing bone discovered by a team led by Museums Victoria Research Institute’s Senior Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology Dr Tom Rich and Professor Pat Vickers-Rich at Dinosaur Cove in Victoria, Australia in the late 1980s.
The team found the bones belonged to two different pterosaur individuals. The partial pelvis bone belonged to a pterosaur with a wingspan exceeding two metres, and the small wing bone belonged to a juvenile pterosaur — the first ever reported in Australia.
Lead researcher and PhD student Adele Pentland, from Curtin’s School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, said pterosaurs — which were close cousins of the dinosaurs — were winged reptiles that soared through the skies during the Mesozoic Era.
“During the Cretaceous Period (145-66 million years ago), Australia was further south than it is today, and the state of Victoria was within the polar circle — covered in darkness for weeks on end during the winter. Despite these seasonally harsh conditions, it is clear that pterosaurs found a way to survive and thrive,” Ms Pentland said.
“Pterosaurs are rare worldwide, and only a few remains have been discovered at what were high palaeolatitude locations, such as Victoria, so these bones give us a better idea as to where pterosaurs lived and how big they were.
“By analysing these bones, we have also been able to confirm the existence of the first ever Australian juvenile pterosaur, which resided in the Victorian forests around 107 million years ago.”
Ms Pentland said that although the bones provide important insights about pterosaurs, little is known about whether they bred in these harsh polar conditions.
“It will only be a matter of time until we are able to determine whether pterosaurs migrated north during the harsh winters to breed, or whether they adapted to polar conditions. Finding the answer to this question will help researchers better understand these mysterious flying reptiles,” Ms Pentland said.
Dr Tom Rich, from Museums Victoria Research Institute, said it was wonderful to see the fruits of research coming out of the hard work of Dinosaur Cove which was completed decades ago.
“These two fossils were the outcome of a labour-intensive effort by more than 100 volunteers over a decade,” Dr Rich said.
“That effort involved excavating more than 60 metres of tunnel where the two fossils were found in a seaside cliff at Dinosaur Cove.”
The research was co-authored by researchers from Curtin’s School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, the Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum of Natural History, Monash University, and Museums Victoria Research Institute.
Reference:
Adele H. Pentland, Patricia Vickers-Rich, Thomas H. Rich, Samantha L. Rigby, Stephen F. Poropat. Oldest pterosaur remains from Australia: evidence from the Lower Cretaceous (lower Albian) Eumeralla Formation of Victoria. Historical Biology, 2023; 1 DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2023.2201827
Note: The above post is reprinted from materials provided by Curtin University. Original written by Lauren Sydoruk.
